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'''Nicotine manipulation''' refers to the ways in which nicotine, or the delivery of nicotine to the smoker, are altered. Nicotine is manipulated through various means, including genetic alteration of tobacco plants, adjustment of smoke pH (for example using [[Freebase nicotine|freebasing]]), manipulation of sugars in tobacco or the use of additives to enhance nicotine's effects.<ref>David Tannenbaum [http://www.multinationalmonitor.org/mm1998/98july-aug/smoke3-side2.html Smoking Guns II: Nicotine Manipulation] Multinational Monitor, July/August, 1998; Volume 19, Number 7 & 8</ref><ref>P. Lipiello, R.J. Reynolds [http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/udx93d00 RDM89 267. Enhancement of Nicotine Binding to Nicotinic Receptors by Nicotine Levulinate and Levulinic Acid] Scientific report. 27 pp. September 25, 1989. Bates No. 508295794/5820</ref> Goals of nicotine manipulation include enhancement of the physical motivation for smoking, bolstering the long-term use of cigarettes (addiction maintenance)<ref>U.S. Food and Drug Administration [http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/xzz32c00 Federal Regsiater Part II 21 CFR Part 801, ET AL. Regulations restricting the sale and distribution of cigarettes and smokeless tobaco to protect children and adolescents, Final Rule], Published regulation, August 28, 1996. 83 pp. Philip Morris Bates No. 2072325873/5955, at PDF page #16</ref>, prevention of smoking cessation and improvement, and maintenance of "satisfaction of the consumer."<ref>Doug Campbell [ http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/fkh91b00 Documents discuss nicotine levels and marketing to teens] Newspaper article. Greensboro ''News and Record''; June 28, 1998. Lorillard Bates No. 86591895/1904 at pages 3 and 4</ref>